User’s manual FLIR T6xx series Publ. No.
User’s manual Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
Legal disclaimer All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction. Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in systems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty, if any, of the particular supplier only.
■ IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT (“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. INSTEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND. ANY USE OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO USE ON THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO THIS EULA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT). ■ GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following license: ■ You may use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.
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Table of contents 1 Warnings & Cautions ..................................................................................................................... 1 2 Notice to user .................................................................................................................................. 4 3 Customer help ................................................................................................................................ 5 4 Documentation updates .....................
16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 Hiding overlay graphics ........................................................................................................ Changing the palette ............................................................................................................ Deleting an image ................................................................................................................. Deleting all images ...........................................................................
27 Application examples ..................................................................................................................... 27.1 Moisture & water damage .................................................................................................... 27.2 Faulty contact in socket ........................................................................................................ 27.3 Oxidized socket ....................................................................................
28.4.8 28.4.7.1 Relative & absolute humidity ............................................................ 126 28.4.7.2 Definition of dew point ...................................................................... 126 Excerpt from Technical Note ‘Assessing thermal bridging and insulation continuity’ (UK example) ...................................................................................... 126 28.4.8.1 Credits .........................................................................................
31 Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 163 32 Thermographic measurement techniques ................................................................................... 167 32.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 167 32.2 Emissivity ...................................................................
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1 Warnings & Cautions WARNING ■ ■ (Applies only to Class A digital devices.) This equipment generates, uses, and can radiate radio frequency energy and if not installed and used in accordance with the instruction manual, may cause interference to radio communications.
1 – Warnings & Cautions ■ ■ ■ CAUTION ■ Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous. ■ Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at intensive energy sources, for example devices that emit laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.
1 – Warnings & Cautions ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F), unless specified otherwise in the user documentation. If you charge the battery at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery.
2 Notice to user Typographical conventions This manual uses the following typographical conventions: ■ ■ ■ ■ User-to-user forums Semibold is used for menu names, menu commands and labels, and buttons in dialog boxes. Italic is used for important information. Monospace is used for code samples. UPPER CASE is used for names on keys and buttons. Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit: http://www.
3 Customer help General For customer help, visit: http://support.flir.com Submitting a question To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.
4 Documentation updates General Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifications of changes on a regular basis. To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at: http://support.flir.com It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the latest releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and obsolete products. 6 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
5 Important note about this manual General FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line. This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply to your particular camera model. NOTE FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, software, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications and/or functionality at any time without prior notice. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
6 Parts lists 6.1 Scope of delivery Contents ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Hard transport case Infrared camera with lens Battery (2 ea.
6 – Parts lists 6.2 List of accessories and services General This section contains a list of accessories and services that you can purchase for your camera. Accessories and services ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ NOTE T197524 Lens IR f=41.3 mm (15°) T197914 Lens IR f=41.3 mm with case (15°) T197909 Lens IR f=24.6 mm (25°) T197922 Lens IR f=24.6 mm with case (25°) T197526 Lens IR f=13.1 mm (45°) T197915 Lens IR f=13.
7 Quick Start Guide Procedure Follow this procedure to get started right away: 1 Put a battery into the battery compartment. 2 Charge the battery for 4 hours before starting the camera for the first time, or until the green battery condition LED glows continuously. 3 Insert a memory card into a card slot. 4 Push the Aim the camera towards the object of interest. 6 Autofocus the camera by pushing the Autofocus/Save button half-way down.
8 A note about ergonomics General To prevent strain-related injuries, it is important that you hold the camera ergonomically correct. This section gives advice and examples on how to hold the camera. NOTE Please note the following: ■ ■ Figure Always tilt the touch-screen LCD to suit your work position. When you hold the camera, make sure that you support the optics housing with your left hand too. This decreases the strain on your right hand. T638727;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
8 – A note about ergonomics 12 T638729;a1 T638730;a1 T638731;a2 T638732;a1 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 Camera parts 9.1 View from the right Figure T638746;a2 Explanation This table explains the figure above: 1 Knob to change the dioptric correction for the viewfinder. 2 Handstrap. 3 Digital zoom button. 4 Autofocus/Save button. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 – Camera parts 9.2 View from the left Figure T638747;a2 Explanation This table explains the figure above: 14 1 Lamp for the digital camera. 2 Laser pointer. 3 Lamp for the digital camera. 4 Infrared lens. 5 Digital camera. 6 Focus ring. 7 Button to operate the laser pointer. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 – Camera parts 9.3 View from the rear Figure T638744;a2 Explanation This table explains the figure above: 1 Sensor that adjusts the touch-screen LCD intensity automatically. 2 Button to switch between touch-screen LCD mode and viewfinder mode. 3 Viewfinder (dependent on the camera model). 4 Programmable button. 5 Joystick. 6 ■ ■ Button to display the menu system. Back button. 7 Stylus pen 8 Button to switch between different image modes: ■ ■ ■ ■ Infrared camera. Digital camera.
9 – Camera parts 16 9 Button to switch between automatic mode, manual mode, manual minimum mode, and manual maximum mode. 10 Image archive. 11 Touch-screen LCD. 12 Power indicator. 13 On/off button. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 – Camera parts 9.4 View from the bottom Figure T638853;a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above: 1 Tripod mount. Requires an adapter (extra accessory). 2 Latch to open the battery compartment. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 – Camera parts 9.5 Battery condition LED indicator Figure T638739;a1 Explanation This table explains the battery condition LED indicator: 18 Type of signal Explanation The green LED flashes two times per second. The battery is being charged. The green LED glows continuously. The battery is fully charged. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 – Camera parts 9.6 Power LED indicator Figure T638745;a1 Explanation This table explains the power LED indicator: Type of signal Explanation The LED is off. The camera is off. The LED is blue. The camera is on. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
9 – Camera parts 9.7 Laser pointer General The camera has a laser pointer. When the laser pointer is on, you can see a laser dot above the target. Figure This figure shows the difference in position between the laser pointer and the optical center of the infrared lens: T638756;a2 WARNING Do not look directly into the laser beam. The laser beam can cause eye irritation. NOTE ■ ■ The symbol is displayed on the screen when the laser pointer is on. The laser pointer may not be enabled in all markets.
10 Screen elements Figure T638697;a4 Explanation This table explains the figure above: 1 Measurement result table. 2 Measurement tools (e.g., spotmeter). 3 Temperature scale. 4 Setup mode. 5 Video mode recording. 6 Camera mode/live image mode. 7 Measurement presets. 8 Measurement tools. 9 Color palettes. 10 Measurement parameters. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
11 Navigating the menu system Figure T638762;a2 Explanation The figure above shows the two ways to navigate the menu system in the camera: ■ ■ 22 T638758;a1 Using the index finger or the stylus pen to navigate the menu system (left). Using the joystick to navigate the menu system (right). Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
12 Connecting external devices and storage media Figure T638748;a2 Explanation This table explains the figure above: 1 Memory card. 2 Indicator showing that the memory card is busy. Note: Do not remove the memory card when this indicator is glowing. 3 USB mini-B cable. 4 HDMI cable. 5 Power cable. 6 USB-A cable. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
13 Pairing Bluetooth devices General Before you can use a Bluetooth device with the camera, you need to pair the devices. Procedure Follow this procedure: 1 Go to (Settings). 2 Go to the Connectivity tab. 3 Activate Bluetooth. Note: You also need to activate Bluetooth connectivity on the external device. NOTE ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 24 4 Select Add Bluetooth device. 5 Select Scan for Bluetooth device, and wait until a list of available devices is displayed. This will take about 15 seconds.
14 Configuring Wi-Fi General Depending on your camera configuration, you can connect the camera to a wireless local area network (WLAN) using Wi-Fi, or let the camera provide Wi-Fi access to another device. You can connect the camera in two different ways: ■ ■ Setting up a peer-to-peer connection (most common use) Most common use: Setting up a peer-to-peer connection (also called ad hoc or P2P connection). This method is primarily used with other devices, e.g., an iPhone or iPad.
14 – Configuring Wi-Fi NOTE 26 Some networks do not broadcast their existence. To connect to such a network, select Add manually and set all parameters manually according to that network. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
15 Handling the camera 15.1 Turning on the camera Procedure 15.2 Procedure To turn on the camera, push and release the button. Turning off the camera To turn off the camera, push and hold the Publ. No. T559598 Rev. a554 – ENGLISH (EN) – September 27, 2011 button for more than 0.2 second.
15 – Handling the camera 15.3 Adjusting the viewfinder’s dioptric correction NOTE This procedure only applies to cameras with a viewfinder. General The viewfinder’s dioptric correction can be adjusted for your eyesight. Figure T638740;a2 Procedure To adjust the viewfinder’s dioptric correction, look at the displayed text or graphics on the screen, and rotate the adjustment knob clockwise or counter-clockwise for best sharpness. ■ ■ 28 Maximum dioptric correction: +2.
15 – Handling the camera 15.4 Adjusting the angle of the lens General To make your working position as comfortable as possible, you can adjust the angle of the lens. Figure T638742;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
15 – Handling the camera 15.5 Adjusting the infrared camera focus manually NOTE ■ ■ Do not touch the lens surface when you adjust the infrared camera focus manually. If this happens, clean the lens according to the instructions in section 24.2 – Infrared lens on page 68. The focus ring can be rotated infinitely, but only a certain amount of rotation is needed when focusing.
15 – Handling the camera 15.6 Autofocusing the infrared camera Figure T638763;a2 Procedure To autofocus the camera, push the Autofocus/Save button half-way down. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
15 – Handling the camera 15.7 Operating the laser pointer Figure T638741;a3 Procedure Follow this procedure to operate the laser pointer: NOTE ■ ■ 32 1 To turn on the laser pointer, push and hold the laser button. 2 To turn off the laser pointer, release the laser button. A warning indicator is displayed on the screen when the laser pointer is turned on. The position of the laser dot is indicated on the infrared image (depending on the camera model). Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
15 – Handling the camera 15.8 Using the digital zoom function General You can digitally zoom in on infrared images in preview or recall mode. This enables you to view details in an image. Figure T638743;a2 Procedure To zoom, push the zoom button left or right. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
16 Working with images 16.1 Previewing an image General You can preview an infrared image or a digital photo before you save it to a memory card. This enables you to see if the image or photo contains the information you want before you save it. In preview mode, you can also manipulate the image before you save it, and add annotations. Procedure NOTE To preview an image, briefly push and release the Autofocus/Save button.
16 – Working with images 16.2 Saving an image General You can save an image directly, without previewing the image first. Image capacity This table gives information on the approximate number of infrared (IR) and digital camera (DC) images that can be saved on memory cards: Card size IR only IR + DC IR + DC + 30 seconds voice annotation 1 GB 1450 600 450 2 GB 2900 1200 900 Naming convention The naming convention for images is IR_xxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.
16 – Working with images 16.3 Opening an image General When you save an image, the image is stored on a memory card. To display the image again, open it from the memory card. Procedure Follow this procedure to open an image: 1 36 Push . 2 Push the joystick up/down or left/right to select the image you want to view. 3 Push the joystick. This will display the image at full size. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
16 – Working with images 16.4 General Example 1 Adjusting an image An image can be adjusted automatically or manually. You use the button to switch between these two modes. Note that this only works in live mode and not in preview/archive mode. This figure shows two infrared images of cable connection points. In the left image a correct analysis of the left cable is difficult to do if you only auto-adjust the image.
16 – Working with images Example 2 This figure shows two infrared images of an isolator in a power line. In the image on the left the cold sky and the power line structure have been recorded at a minimum temperature of –26.0°C (–14.8°F). In the right image the maximum and minimum temperature levels have been changed to temperature levels near the isolator. This makes it easier to analyze the temperature variations in the isolator. 10742503;a3 38 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
16 – Working with images Changing the temperature scale level Follow this procedure to change the temperature scale level: 1 2 3 Changing the temperature scale span . Use the joystick to select Manual. To change the scale level, push the joystick up/down. Follow this procedure to change the temperature scale span: 1 2 3 NOTE Push Push . Use the joystick to select (Manual). To change the scale span, push the joystick left/right. These procedures only apply to live image mode. Publ. No.
16 – Working with images 16.5 Hiding overlay graphics General Overlay graphics provide information about an image, e.g., measurement functions and parameters. You can choose to hide all overlay graphics. Procedure 1 2 3 4 5 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to (Settings). Push the joystick. Use the joystick to go to (Preferences). Under Programmable button, select Hide graphics. You have now assigned this function to the button.
16 – Working with images 16.6 Changing the palette General You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures. A different palette can make it easier to analyze an image. Procedure Follow this procedure to change the palette: 1 2 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to . 3 Push the joystick to display a submenu. 4 Use the joystick to select a different palette. 5 Push the joystick. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
16 – Working with images 16.7 Deleting an image General You can delete one or more images in a folder. Procedure Follow this procedure to delete an image: 1 NOTE 42 Push . 2 Push the joystick up/down or left/right to select the image you want to delete. 3 Push the joystick to display the image. 4 Push the joystick to display a menu. 5 On the menu, select Delete and confirm the choice. Note that all images in the same group will be deleted at the same time, e.g., digital photos. Publ. No.
16 – Working with images 16.8 Deleting all images General You can delete all images in a folder. Procedure Follow this procedure to delete an image: 1 Push . 2 Push the joystick up/down or left/right to select any image. 3 Push the joystick to display the image. 4 Push the joystick to display a menu. 5 On the menu, select Delete all and confirm the choice. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
16 – Working with images 16.9 Creating a PDF report in the camera General You can create a PDF report in the camera. You can then transfer the PDF report to a computer, iPhone, or iPad using the FLIR Viewer app, and send the report to a customer. Procedure Follow this procedure to create a PDF report: 1 Push . 2 Push the joystick up/down or left/right to select an image. 3 Push the joystick to display the image. 4 Push the joystick to display a menu. 5 On the menu, select Create report.
17 Working with thermal fusion and picture-in-picture image modes What is thermal fusion? Thermal fusion is a function that lets you display part of a digital photo as an infrared image. For example, you can set the camera to display all areas of an image that have a certain temperature in infrared, with all other areas displayed as a digital photo. What is picture-inpicture? Picture-in-picture is similar to thermal fusion in that it lets you display part of a digital photo as an infrared image.
17 – Working with thermal fusion and picture-in-picture image modes Fusion type Image Interval Picture-in-Picture 46 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
17 – Working with thermal fusion and picture-in-picture image modes Procedure to set up thermal fusion Follow this procedure: 1 2 3 4 Push to display a toolbar. On the toolbar, select Thermal fusion. Push . To change the portion of infrared in the image, do one of the following: ■ , then push the joystick up/down Push the joystick left/right to select to change the bottom temperature level. ■ Push the joystick left/right to select to change the top temperature level.
17 – Working with thermal fusion and picture-in-picture image modes Procedure to set up picture-in-picture Follow this procedure: 1 2 Push to display a toolbar. On the toolbar, select Picture-in-Picture This will display an infrared image frame on top of a digital photo. 48 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
18 Working with measurement tools 18.1 Laying out measurement tools: spots, areas, etc. General To measure a temperature, you use one or more measurement tools, e.g., a spotmeter or a box. Procedure Follow this procedure to lay out a measurement tool: 1 2 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to . 3 Push the joystick to display a submenu. 4 Use the joystick to go to a measurement tool. 5 Push the joystick. This will display the measurement tool on the screen. Publ. No.
18 – Working with measurement tools 18.2 Laying out measurement tool: isotherms General The isotherm command applies a contrasting color to all pixels with a temperature above, below, or between one or more set temperature levels. Using isotherms is a good method to easily discover anomalies in an infrared image. Procedure Follow this procedure to lay out an isotherm: 1 2 3 4 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to . Push the joystick to display a submenu.
18 – Working with measurement tools 18.3 Moving or resizing a measurement tool General You can move and resize a measurement tool. NOTE ■ ■ Procedure This procedure assumes that you have previously laid out a measurement tool on the screen. You can also move and resize the measurement tool using the stylus pen. Follow this procedure to move or resize a measurement tool: 1 2 3 4 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to (Tools). Push the joystick to display a submenu.
18 – Working with measurement tools 18.4 Creating and setting up a difference calculation General A difference calculation gives the difference between the values of two known measurement results. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have previously laid out at least two measurement tools on the screen. Procedure Follow this procedure to create and set up a difference calculation: 1 2 3 4 52 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to (Tools).
18 – Working with measurement tools 18.5 Changing object parameters General For accurate measurements, you must set the object parameters. Types of parameters The camera can use these object parameters: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Recommended values Emissivity, i.e., how much radiation an object emits, compared with the radiation of a theoretical reference object of the same temperature (called a “blackbody”). The opposite of emissivity is reflectivity.
18 – Working with measurement tools Procedure Follow this procedure to change the object parameters: 1 2 Push to display the menu system. Use the joystick to go to . 3 Push the joystick to display a dialog box. 4 Use the joystick to select and change an object parameter. 5 Push the joystick. This will close the dialog box. NOTE Of the parameters above, emissivity and reflected apparent temperature are the two most important to set correctly in the camera.
19 Fetching data from external Extech meters General You can fetch data from an external Extech meter and merge this data into the result table in the infrared image. Figure T638370;a1 Supported Extech meters ■ Technical support for Extech meters support@extech.com NOTE ■ ■ This support is for Extech meters only. For technical support for infrared cameras, go to http://support.flir.com.
19 – Fetching data from external Extech meters 3 On the meter, enable Bluetooth mode. Refer to the user documentation for the meter for information on how to do this. 4 On the meter, choose the quantity that you want to use (voltage, current, resistance, etc.). Refer to the user documentation for the meter for information on how to do this. Results from the meter will now automatically be displayed in the result table in the top left corner of the infrared camera screen.
19 – Fetching data from external Extech meters 19.1 Typical moisture measurement and documentation procedure General The following procedure can form the basis for other procedures using Extech meters and infrared cameras. Procedure Follow this procedure: 1 Use the infrared camera to identify any potential damp areas behind walls and ceilings. 2 Use the moisture meter to measure the moisture levels at various suspect locations that may have been found.
20 Working with isotherms 20.1 Building isotherms General The camera features isotherm types that are specific to the building trade. You can make the camera trigger the following types of isotherms: ■ ■ Humidity: Triggers when a measurement tool detects a surface where the relative humidity exceeds a preset value. Insulation: Triggers when there is an insulation deficiency in a wall.
21 Annotating images General This section describes how to save additional information in an infrared image by using annotations. Using annotations makes reporting and post-processing more efficient by providing essential information about the image, e.g., conditions, photos, and information about where an image is taken. You can set the camera to automatically add an annotation to your images. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
21 – Annotating images 21.1 Taking a digital photo General When you save an infrared image you can also take a digital photo of the object of interest. This digital photo will automatically be grouped together with the infrared image, which will simplify post-processing and reporting. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have not set the camera to automatically add a digital photo.
21 – Annotating images 21.2 Creating a voice annotation General A voice annotation is an audio recording that is stored in an infrared image file. The voice annotation is recorded using a Bluetooth headset. The recording can be played back in the camera, and in image analysis and reporting software from FLIR Systems. Procedure Follow this procedure to create a voice annotation: 1 2 3 To preview an image, push and release the Autofocus/Save button fully down. .
21 – Annotating images 21.3 Creating a text annotation General A text annotation is grouped with an image file. Using this feature, you can annotate images. This text can be revised later. This feature is very efficient when saving information on an image when you are inspecting a large number of similar objects. Using text annotations avoids filling out forms or inspection protocols manually. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have not set the camera to automatically add a text annotation.
21 – Annotating images 7 In this dialog, do one of the following: ■ ■ 8 Select one of the predefined descrptions, e.g., engine or vent. Click Keyboard and type in a new description. Click OK. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
21 – Annotating images 21.4 Adding a sketch General A sketch is freehand drawing that you create in a sketch work area separate from the infrared image using a stylus pen or your index finger. You can use the sketch feature to create a simple drawing, write down comments, add dimensions, etc. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have not set the camera to automatically add a sketch.
22 Recording video clips General You can record non-radiometric infrared or visual video clips. In this mode, the camera can be regarded as an ordinary digital video camera. The video clips can be played back in Microsoft Windows Media Player, but it will not be possible to retrieve radiometric information from the video clips. Procedure Follow this procedure to record infrared or visual non-radiometric video clips: 1 2 3 Push Use the joystick to go to .
23 Changing settings General You can change a variety of settings for the camera: ■ ■ ■ ■ Camera settings, e.g., the display intensity, power management, touch-screen calibration, and default settings. Preferences, e.g., settings for annotations and overlay. Connectivity, e.g., settings for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Regional settings, e.g., the language, date and time, date and time format, and temperature and distance units. This area also contains uneditable camera information, e.g.
24 Cleaning the camera 24.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items Liquids Use one of these liquids: ■ ■ Warm water A weak detergent solution Equipment A soft cloth Procedure Follow this procedure: CAUTION 1 Soak the cloth in the liquid. 2 Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid. 3 Clean the part with the cloth. Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause damage. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
24 – Cleaning the camera 24.2 Infrared lens Liquids Use one of these liquids: ■ ■ 96% isopropyl alcohol. A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol. Equipment Cotton wool Procedure Follow this procedure: 1 Soak the cotton wool in the liquid. 2 Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid. 3 Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.
24 – Cleaning the camera 24.3 Infrared detector General Even small amounts of dust on the infrared detector can result in major blemishes in the image. To remove any dust from the detector, follow the procedure below. NOTE ■ ■ This section only applies to cameras where removing the lens exposes the infrared detector. In some cases the dust cannot be removed by following this procedure: the infrared detector must be cleaned mechanically.
25 Technical data For technical data, refer to the datasheets on the user documentation CD-ROM that comes with the camera. Technical data is also available at http://support.flir.com. 70 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 Dimensional drawings 26.1 Camera dimensions, front view (1) Figure T638750;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.2 Figure 72 Camera dimensions, front view (2) T638751;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.3 Figure Camera dimensions, side view (1) T638753;a1 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.4 Figure 74 Camera dimensions, side view (2) T638764;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.5 Figure Camera dimensions, 41.3 mm/15° lens, side view T638752;a4 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.6 Figure 76 Camera dimensions, 24.6 mm/25° lens, side view T638754;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.7 Figure Camera dimensions, 13.1 mm/45° lens, side view T638755;a2 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.8 Figure 78 Infrared lens (41.3 mm/15°) T638759;a1 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.9 Figure Infrared lens (24.6 mm/25°) T638760;a1 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.10 Figure 80 Infrared lens (13.1 mm/45°) T638761;a1 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.11 Battery (1) Figure T638736;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.12 Battery (2) Figure T638737;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. 82 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.13 Battery charger (1) Figure T638733;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.14 Battery charger (2) Figure T638734;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. 84 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
26 – Dimensional drawings 26.15 Battery charger (3) Figure T638735;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
27 Application examples 27.1 Moisture & water damage General It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material. NOTE Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image.
27 – Application examples 27.2 Faulty contact in socket General Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can result in an electrical fire. NOTE A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another.
27 – Application examples 27.3 Oxidized socket General Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as local temperature increase. NOTE A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another.
27 – Application examples 27.4 Insulation deficiencies General Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall. An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation, and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.
27 – Application examples 27.5 Draft General Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler airstream cools down the surrounding surface. NOTE When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house. Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you take the infrared images.
28 Introduction to building thermography 28.1 Disclaimer 28.1.1 Copyright notice Some sections and/or images appearing in this chapter are copyrighted to the following organizations and companies: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ FORMAS—The Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning, Stockholm, Sweden ITC—Infrared Training Center, Boston, MA, United States Stockton Infrared Thermographic Services, Inc.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3 Typical field investigations 28.3.1 Guidelines As will be noted in subsequent sections there are a number of general guidelines the user should take heed of when carrying out building thermography inspection. This section gives a summary of these guidelines. 28.3.1.1 ■ ■ ■ General guidelines The emissivity of the majority of building materials fall between 0.85 and 0.95. Setting the emissivity value in the camera to 0.
28 – Introduction to building thermography ■ Infrared inspection does not directly detect the presence of mold, rather it may be used to find moisture where mold may develop or has already developed. Mold requires temperatures between +4°C to +38°C (+40°F to +100°F), nutrients and moisture to grow. Humidity levels above 50% can provide sufficient moisture to enable mold to grow. 10556003;a1 Figure 28.2 Microscopic view of mold spore 28.3.1.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.2 About moisture detection Moisture in a building structure can originate from several different sources, e.g.: External leaks, such as floods, leaking fire hydrants etc. Internal leaks, such as freshwater piping, waste water piping etc. Condensation, which is humidity in the air falling out as liquid water due to condensation on cold surfaces. Building moisture, which is any moisture in the building material prior to erecting the building structure.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Cause % Poor workmanship 47.6 Roof traffic 2.6 Poor design 16.7 Trapped moisture 7.8 Materials 8.0 Age & weathering 8.4 Potential leak locations include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Flashing Drains Penetrations Seams Blisters 28.3.3.2 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Safety precautions Recommend a minimum of two people on a roof, preferably three or more. Inspect the underside of the roof for structural integrity prior to walking on it.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.3.3 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on low-slope commercial roofs. Structural drawing Comment 10553603;a2 Inadequate sealing of roof membrane around conduit and ventilation ducts leading to local leakage around the conduit or duct. 10553703;a2 Roof membrane inadequately sealed around roof access hatch. 96 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10553803;a2 Drainage channels located too high and with too low an inclination. Some water will remain in the drainage channel after rain, which may lead to local leakage around the channel. 10553903;a2 Inadequate sealing between roof membrane and roof outlet leading to local leakage around the roof outlet. 28.3.3.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared inspections of roofs with nonabsorbent insulations, common in many singleply systems, are more difficult to diagnose because patterns are more diffuse. This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on low-slope commercial roofs: Infrared image Comment 10554003;a1 Moisture detection on a roof, recorded during the evening.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.4 Moisture detection (2): Commercial & residential façades 28.3.4.1 General information Thermography has proven to be invaluable in the assessment of moisture infiltration into commercial and residential façades. Being able to provide a physical illustration of the moisture migration paths is more conclusive than extrapolating moisture meter probe locations and more cost-effective than large intrusive test cuts. 28.3.4.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10554503;a2 Rain hits the façade at an angle and penetrates the plaster through cracks. The water then follows the inside of the plaster and leads to frost erosion. 10554603;a2 Rain splashes on the façade and penetrates the plaster and masonry by absorption, which eventually leads to frost erosion. 100 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.4.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on commercial & residential façades. Infrared image Comment 10554703;a1 Improperly terminated and sealed stone veneer to window frame and missing flashings has resulted in moisture infiltration into the wall cavity and interior living space.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.5.2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on decks and balconies. Structural drawing Comment 10555203;a2 Improper sealing of paving and membrane to roof outlet, leading to leakage during rain. 10555103;a2 No flashing at deck-to-wall connection, leading to rain penetrating the concrete and insulation. 102 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10555003;a2 Water has penetrated the concrete due to inadequately sized drop apron and has led to concrete disintegration and corrosion of reinforcement. SECURITY RISK! 10554903;a2 Water has penetrated the plaster and underlying masonry at the point where the handrail is fastened to the wall. SECURITY RISK! Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.5.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on decks and balconies. Infrared image Comment 10555303;a1 Improper flashing at balcony-to-wall connections and missing perimeter drainage system resulted in moisture intrusion into the wood framing support structure of the exterior walkway balcony of a loft complex.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.6.2 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of plumbing breaks & leaks. Infrared image Comment 10555503;a1 Moisture migration tracking along steel joist channels inside ceiling of a single family home where a plumbing line had ruptured.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10555703;a1 The infrared image of this vinyl-sided 3-floor apartment house clearly shows the path of a serious leak from a washing machine on the third floor, which is completely hidden within the wall. 10555803;a1 Water leak due to improper sealing between floor drain and tiles. 106 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.7 Air infiltration 28.3.7.1 General information Due to the wind pressure on a building, temperature differences between the inside and the outside of the building, and the fact that most buildings use exhaust air terminal devices to extract used air from the building, a negative pressure of 2–5 Pa can be expected.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10552303;a2 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate flow due to improperly installed fiberglass insulation batts. The air infiltration enters the room from behind the cornice. 10552603;a2 Air infiltration in a concrete floor-over-crawl-space due to cracks in the brick wall façade. The air infiltration enters the room beneath the skirting strip. 108 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.7.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of details of building structures where air infiltration has occurred. Infrared image Comment 10552703;a1 Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip. Note the typical ray pattern. 10552803;a1 Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip. Note the typical ray pattern. The white area to the left is a radiator. 10552903;a1 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.8 Insulation deficiencies 28.3.8.1 General information Insulation deficiencies do not necessarily lead to air infiltration. If fiberglass insulation batts are improperly installed air pockets will form in the building structure. Since these air pockets have a different thermal conductivity than areas where the insulation batts are properly installed, the air pockets can be detected during a building thermography inspection.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10553103;a2 Insulation deficiencies due to improper installation of insulation batts around an attic floor beam. Cool air infiltrates the structure and cools down the inside of the ceiling. This kind of insulation deficiency will show up as dark areas on an infrared image. 10553003;a2 Insulation deficiencies due to improper installation of insulation batts creating an air pocket on the outside of an inclined ceiling.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.3.8.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of insulation deficiencies. Infrared image Comment 10553303;a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure. The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed insulations batts (air pockets). 10553403;a1 Improperly installed fiberglass batts in a suspended ceiling. 112 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10553503;a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure. The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed insulations batts (air pockets). Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.4 Theory of building science 28.4.1 General information The demand for energy-efficient constructions has increased significantly in recent times. Developments in the field of energy, together with the demand for pleasant indoor environments, have resulted in ever-greater significance having to be attached to both the function of a building’s thermal insulation and airtightness and the efficiency of its heating and ventilation systems.
28 – Introduction to building thermography the results of measurements, there are special requirements in terms of the skills and experience of those taking the measurements, e.g. by means of authorization by a national or regional standardization body. 28.4.2 The effects of testing and checking It can be difficult to anticipate how well the thermal insulation and airtightness of a completed building will work.
28 – Introduction to building thermography ■ For the user the important thing is that the finished product fulfills the promised requirements in terms of the building’s thermal insulation and airtightness. For the individual, buying a house involves a considerable financial commitment, and the purchaser therefore wants to know that any defects in the construction will not involve serious financial consequences or hygiene problems.
28 – Introduction to building thermography The temperature changes associated with variations in the U value are generally gradual and symmetrically distributed across the surface. Variations of this kind do of course occur at the angles formed by roofs and floors and at the corners of walls. Temperature changes associated with air leaks or insulation defects are in most cases more evident with characteristically shaped sharp contours. The temperature pattern is usually asymmetrical.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Any wet surfaces, e.g. as a result of surface condensation, have a definite effect on heat transfer at the surface and the surface temperature. Where there is moisture on a surface, there is usually some evaporation which draws off heat, thus lowering the temperature of the surface by several degrees. There is risk of surface condensation at major thermal bridges and insulation defects.
28 – Introduction to building thermography In a steady wind flow, Bernoulli’s Law applies: where: ρ Air density in kg/m3 v Wind velocity in m/s p Static pressure in Pa and where: denotes the dynamic pressure and p the static pressure. The total of these pressures gives the total pressure. Wind load against a surface makes the dynamic pressure become a static pressure against the surface.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 10551803;a1 Figure 28.3 Distribution of resultant pressures on a building’s enclosing surfaces depending on wind effects, ventilation and internal/external temperature difference. 1: Wind direction; Tu: Thermodynamic air temperature outdoors in K; Ti: Thermodynamic air temperature indoors in K. If the whole of the dynamic pressure becomes static pressure, then C = 1.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 10551903;a1 Figure 28.4 Stress concentration factor (C) distributions for various wind directions and wind velocities (v) relative to a building. Wind conditions can vary substantially over time and between relatively closely situated locations. In thermography, such variations can have a clear effect on the measurement results. It has been demonstrated experimentally that the differential pressure on a façade exposed to an average wind force of about 5 m/s (16.
28 – Introduction to building thermography part. At a certain height there is a neutral zone where the pressures on the inside and outside are the same, see the figure on page 123. This differential pressure may be described by the relationship: Δp Air pressure differential within the structure in Pa g 9.81 m/s2 ρu Air density in kg/m3 Tu Thermodynamic air temperature outdoors in K Ti Thermodynamic air temperature indoors in K h Distance from the neutral zone in meters If ρu = 1.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 10552003;a1 Figure 28.5 Distribution of pressures on a building with two openings and where the external temperature is lower than the internal temperature. 1: Neutral zone; 2: Positive pressure; 3: Negative pressure; h: Distance from the neutral zone in meters. The position of the neutral zone may vary, depending on any leaks in the building. If the leaks are evenly distributed vertically, this zone will be about halfway up the building.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.4.5 Measuring conditions & measuring season The foregoing may be summarized as follows as to the requirements with regard to measuring conditions when carrying out thermographic imaging of buildings. Thermographic imaging is done in such a way that the disruptive influence from external climatic factors is as slight as possible. The imaging process is therefore carried out indoors, i.e. where a building is heated, the structure’s warm surfaces are examined.
28 – Introduction to building thermography In practice the method involves the following: Laboratory or field tests are used to produce an expected temperature distribution in the form of typical or comparative infrared images for common wall structures, comprising both defect-free structures and structures with in-built defects. Examples of typical infrared images are shown in section 28.3 – Typical field investigations on page 92.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Deviations and irregularities in the appearance of the infrared image often indicate insulation defects. There may obviously be considerable variations in the appearance of infrared images of structures with insulation defects. Certain types of insulation defects have a characteristic shape on the infrared image. Section 28.3 – Typical field investigations on page 92 shows examples of interpretations of infrared images.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Fax: +44 (0)1604 231489 28.4.8.2 Introduction Over the last few years the equipment, applications, software, and understanding connected with thermography have all developed at an astonishing rate. As the technology has gradually become integrated into mainstream practises, a corresponding demand for application guides, standards and thermography training has arisen.
28 – Introduction to building thermography ■ ■ ■ ■ Thermal anomalies. Differentiate between real thermal anomalies, where temperature differences are caused by deficiencies in thermal insulation, and those that occur through confounding factors such as localised differences in air movement, reflection and emissivity. Quantify affected areas in relation to the total insulated areas. State whether the anomalies and the building thermal insulation as a whole are acceptable. 28.4.8.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.4.8.4.2 Alternative method using only surface temperatures There are strong arguments for basing thermographic surveys on surface temperatures alone, with no need to measure air temperature. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Stratification inside the building makes reference to air internal temperatures very difficult.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Example for lightweight built-up cladding with defective insulation Good area Failing area Outside surface temperature in ℃ 0.3 1.5 Surface factor from IP17/01 0.95 0.75 Critical external surface temperature factor, after IP17/01 Insulation thickness to give this level of performance, mm Local U value W/m2K 0.92 80 5.1 0.35 1.92 UKTA TN1 surface factor 0.78 UKTA TN1 surface factor outside 0.
28 – Introduction to building thermography 28.4.8.4.4 Measuring surface temperature Measurement of surface temperature is the function of the infrared imaging system. The trained thermographer will recognise, account for and report on the variation of emissivity and reflectivity of the surfaces under consideration. 28.4.8.4.
28 – Introduction to building thermography ■ Wind speed to be less than 10 metres / second (19.5 kn.). As well as temperature, there are other environmental conditions that should also be taken into account when planning a thermographic building survey. External inspections, for example, may be influenced by radiation emissions and reflections from adjacent buildings or a cold clear sky, and even more significantly the heating effect that the sun may have on surface.
28 – Introduction to building thermography Produce an image of each anomaly or cluster of anomalies. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Use a software analysis tool to enclose the anomalous area within the image, taking care not to include construction details that are to be excluded. Calculate the area below the threshold temperature for internal surveys or above the threshold temperature for external surveys. This is the defect area.
28 – Introduction to building thermography ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Access to the surface. Buildings where both the internal and the external surfaces are obscured, e.g., by false ceilings racking or materials stacked against walls may not be amenable to this type of survey. Location of the thermal insulation. Surveys are usually more effective from the side nearest to the thermal insulation. Location of heavyweight materials. Surveys are usually less effective from the side nearest to the heavyweight material.
29 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.1 Important note All camera functions and features that are described in this section may not be supported by your particular camera configuration. Electrical regulations differ from country to country. For that reason, the electrical procedures described in this section may not be the standard of procedure in your particular country. Also, in many countries carrying out electrical inspections requires formal qualification.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations and for the climatic zones. The measurement periods may also differ depending on the type of plant to be inspected, whether they are hydroelectric, nuclear, coal-based or oil-based plants. In the industry the inspections are—at least in Nordic countries with clear seasonal differences—carried out during spring or autumn or before longer stops in the operation. Thus, repairs are made when the operation is stopped anyway.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The more the IR camera operator knows about the equipment that he or she is about to inspect, the higher the quality of the inspection. But it is virtually impossible for an IR thermographer to have detailed knowledge about all the different types of equipment that can be controlled. It is therefore common practice that a person responsible for the equipment is present during the inspection. 29.2.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The classification of the defects gives a more detailed meaning that not only takes into account the situation at the time of inspection (which is certainly of great importance), but also the possibility to normalize the over-temperature to standard load and ambient temperature conditions. An over-temperature of +30°C (+86°F) is certainly a significant fault.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations However, the most common result of the identification and classification of the detected faults is a recommendation to repair immediately or as soon as it is practically possible. It is important that the repair crew is aware of the physical principles for the identification of defects.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.3 Measurement technique for thermographic inspection of electrical installations 29.3.1 How to correctly set the equipment A thermal image may show high temperature variations: 10712803;a4 Figure 29.2 Temperature variations in a fusebox In the images above, the fuse to the right has a maximum temperature of +61°C (+142°F), whereas the one to the left is maximum +32°C (+90°F) and the one in the middle somewhere in between.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations to be in for the moment. It might be so that you measure heat, which has been conducted over some distance, whereas the ‘real’ hot spot is hidden from you. An example is shown in the image below. 10717603;a3 Figure 29.4 A hidden hot spot inside a box Try to choose different angles and make sure that the hot area is seen in its full size, that is, that it is not disappearing behind something that might hide the hottest spot.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.3.3 Comparative measurement For thermographic inspections of electrical installations a special method is used, which is based on comparison of different objects, so-called measurement with a reference. This simply means that you compare the three phases with each other. This method needs systematic scanning of the three phases in parallel in order to assess whether a point differs from the normal temperature pattern.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713303;a4 Figure 29.7 A profile (line) in an infrared image and a graph displaying the increasing temperature 29.3.4 Normal operating temperature Temperature measurement with thermography usually gives the absolute temperature of the object.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The two left phases are considered as normal, whereas the right phase shows a very clear excess temperature. Actually, the operating temperature of the left phase is +68°C (+154°F), that is, quite a substantial temperature, whereas the faulty phase to the right shows a temperature of +86°C (+187°F). This means an excess temperature of +18°C (+33°F), that is, a fault that has to be attended to quickly.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations Excess temperatures measured directly on the faulty part are usually divided into three categories relating to 100% of the maximum load. I < 5°C (9°F) The start of the overheat condition. This must be carefully monitored. II 5–30°C (9–54°F) Developed overheating. It must be repaired as soon as possible (but think about the load situation before a decision is made). III >30°C (54°F) Acute overheating.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.4 Reporting Nowadays, thermographic inspections of electrical installations are probably, without exception, documented and reported by the use of a report program. These programs, which differ from one manufacturer to another, are usually directly adapted to the cameras and will thus make reporting very quick and easy. The program, which has been used for creating the report page shown below, is called FLIR Reporter.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713603;a3 Figure 29.10 A report example Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.5 Different types of hot spots in electrical installations 29.5.1 Reflections The thermographic camera sees any radiation that enters the lens, not only originating from the object that you are looking at, but also radiation that comes from other sources and has been reflected by the target. Most of the time, electrical components are like mirrors to the infrared radiation, even if it is not obvious to the eye.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713803;a3 Figure 29.12 An infrared image of a circuit breaker 29.5.3 Inductive heating 10713903;a3 Figure 29.13 An infrared image of hot stabilizing weights Eddy currents can cause a hot spot in the current path. In cases of very high currents and close proximity of other metals, this has in some cases caused serious fires.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714003;a3 Figure 29.14 Examples of infrared images of load variations The image to the left shows three cables next to each other. They are so far apart that they can be regarded as thermally insulated from each other. The one in the middle is colder than the others. Unless two phases are faulty and overheated, this is a typical example of a very unsymmetrical load.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.5.6 Resistance variations Overheating can have many origins. Some common reasons are described below. Low contact pressure can occur when mounting a joint, or through wear of the material, for example, decreasing spring tension, worn threads in nuts and bolts, even too much force applied at mounting. With increasing loads and temperatures, the yield point of the material is exceeded and the tension weakens.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714303;a3 Figure 29.17 Overheating in a circuit breaker The overheating of this circuit breaker is most probably caused by bad contact in the near finger of the contactor. Thus, the far finger carries more current and gets hotter. The component in the infrared image and in the photo is not the same, however, it is similar). 152 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.6 Disturbance factors at thermographic inspection of electrical installations During thermographic inspections of different types of electrical installations, disturbance factors such as wind, distance to object, rain or snow often influence the measurement result. 29.6.1 Wind During outdoor inspection, the cooling effect of the wind should be taken into account.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations snow or rain and reliable measurement is no longer possible. This is mainly because a heavy snowfall as well as heavy rain is impenetrable to infrared radiation and it is rather the temperature of the snowflakes or raindrops that will be measured. 29.6.3 Distance to object This image is taken from a helicopter 20 meters (66 ft.) away from this faulty connection. The distance was incorrectly set to 1 meter (3 ft.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The measured average temperatures are, from left to right, +85.3°C (+185.5°F),+85.3°C (+185.5°F), +84.8°C (+184.6°F), +84.8°C (+184.6°F), +84.8°C (+184.6°F) and +84.3°C (+183.7°F) from a blackbody at +85°C (+185°F). The thermograms are taken with a 12° lens. The distances are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 meters (3, 7, 10, 13, 16 and 33 ft.).
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations as well, strongly lowering the reading. In the above case, where we have a pointshaped object, which is much hotter than the surroundings, the temperature reading will be too low. 10714703;a3 Figure 29.21 Image from the viewfinder of a ThermaCAM 695 This effect is due to imperfections in the optics and to the size of the detector elements. It is typical for all infrared cameras and can not be avoided. 156 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.7 Practical advice for the thermographer Working in a practical way with a camera, you will discover small things that make your job easier. Here are five of them to start with. 29.7.1 From cold to hot You have been out with the camera at +5°C (+41°F). To continue your work, you now have to perform the inspection indoors.
29 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 29.7.4 Reflected apparent temperature You are in a measurement situation where there are several hot sources that influence your measurement. You need to have the right value for the reflected apparent temperature to input into the camera and thus get the best possible correction. Do it in this way: set the emissivity to 1.0.
30 About FLIR Systems FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and government applications.
30 – About FLIR Systems China, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA—together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international customer base. FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We anticipate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new ones.
30 – About FLIR Systems camera–software combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D, and process monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of languages. We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equipment to the most demanding infrared applications. 30.
30 – About FLIR Systems 10401403;a1 Figure 30.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing 10401503;a1 Figure 30.5 LEFT: Testing of infrared cameras in the climatic chamber; RIGHT: Robot used for camera testing and calibration 162 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
31 Glossary Term or expression Explanation absorption (absorption factor) The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1. atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, normally air. autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correction. autopalette The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.
31 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the camera and the object being measured. filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths. FOV Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR lens. FPA Focal plane array: A type of IR detector. graybody An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a blackbody for each wavelength.
31 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation palette The set of colors used to display an IR image. pixel Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image. radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and angle (W/m2/sr) radiant power Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W) radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an object or a gas. radiator A piece of IR radiating equipment.
31 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation transmission (or transmittance) factor Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number between 0 and 1. transparent isotherm An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering the highlighted parts of the image. visual Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal, thermographic mode.
32 Thermographic measurement techniques 32.1 Introduction An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object. The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the camera to calculate and display this temperature. However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity.
32 – Thermographic measurement techniques 32.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample 32.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature: 32.2.1.1.1 1 Method 1: Direct method Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection angle (a = b). 10588903;a1 Figure 32.
32 – Thermographic measurement techniques 3 Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source using the following settings: ■ ■ Emissivity: 1.0 Dobj: 0 You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods: 10589003;a2 Figure 32.
32 – Thermographic measurement techniques 5 Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down. 10727003;a2 Figure 32.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil 32.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity 1 Select a place to put the sample. 2 Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous procedure. 3 Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample. 4 Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature.
32 – Thermographic measurement techniques ■ ■ ■ ■ Avoid forced convection Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you are certain of This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same. If they are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong. 32.
33 History of infrared technology Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800. 10398703;a1 Figure 33.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822) The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material.
33 – History of infrared technology however, who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point. 10398903;a1 Figure 33.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815) Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase.
33 – History of infrared technology 10399103;a1 Figure 33.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854) Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile.
33 – History of infrared technology The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a distance of 400 meters.
34 Theory of thermography 34.1 Introduction The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography will be given. 34.2 The electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions, called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.
34 – Theory of thermography μm). Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å). The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is: 34.3 Blackbody radiation A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any wavelength.
34 – Theory of thermography If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same appearance.
34 – Theory of thermography ➲ The factor 10-6 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m2, μm. Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λmax and after passing it approaches zero again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at which maximum occurs.
34 – Theory of thermography μm. Thus, a very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm. 10399403;a1 Figure 34.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928) The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the visible light spectrum. At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.
34 – Theory of thermography 10327203;a4 Figure 34.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 (μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm). 34.3.
34 – Theory of thermography 10399303;a1 Figure 34.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body, at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m2, we obtain 1 kW.
34 – Theory of thermography For opaque materials τλ = 0 and the relation simplifies to: Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have the definition: The spectral emissivity ελ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.
34 – Theory of thermography 10401203;a2 Figure 34.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody. 10327303;a4 Figure 34.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator. 34.
34 – Theory of thermography some of it arrives at the other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total emittance of the plate is sought.
35 The measurement formula As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the atmosphere itself.
35 – The measurement formula or, with simplified notation: where C is a constant. Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would consequently be εWsource. We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms: 1 – Emission from the object = ετWobj, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is Tobj.
35 – The measurement formula This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic equipment. The voltages of the formula are: Figure 35.2 Voltages Uobj Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tobj i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object temperature. Utot Measured camera output voltage for the actual case. Urefl Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Trefl according to the calibration.
35 – The measurement formula It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measuring high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more difficult. We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the calibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation.
35 – The measurement formula 10400603;a2 Figure 35.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F). 190 Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
35 – The measurement formula 10400703;a2 Figure 35.4 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F). Publ. No. T559598 Rev.
36 Emissivity tables This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and measurements made by FLIR Systems. 36.1 References 1 Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.Y. 2 William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research, Department of Navy, Washington, D.C. 3 Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems.
36 – Emissivity tables 36.3 Tables Figure 36.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3: Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6: Reference 1 2 3 4 5 6 3M type 35 Vinyl electrical tape (several colors) < 80 LW Ca. 0.96 13 3M type 88 Black vinyl electrical tape < 105 LW Ca. 0.96 13 3M type 88 Black vinyl electrical tape < 105 MW < 0.96 13 3M type Super 33+ Black vinyl electrical tape < 80 LW Ca. 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3 Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3 Aluminum rough surface 20–50 T 0.06–0.07 1 Aluminum sheet, 4 samples differently scratched 70 LW 0.03–0.06 9 Aluminum sheet, 4 samples differently scratched 70 SW 0.05–0.08 9 Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0.04 2 Aluminum weathered, heavily 17 SW 0.83–0.94 5 20 T 0.60 1 Aluminum bronze Aluminum hydroxide powder T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brass rubbed with 80grit emery 20 T 0.20 2 Brass sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1 Brass sheet, worked with emery 20 T 0.2 1 Brick alumina 17 SW 0.68 5 Brick common 17 SW 0.86–0.81 5 Brick Dinas silica, glazed, rough 1100 T 0.85 1 Brick Dinas silica, refractory 1000 T 0.66 1 Brick Dinas silica, unglazed, rough 1000 T 0.80 1 Brick firebrick 17 SW 0.68 5 Brick fireclay 20 T 0.85 1 Brick fireclay 1000 T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brick waterproof 17 SW 0.87 5 Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9 Bronze phosphor bronze 70 SW 0.08 9 Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1 Bronze porous, rough 50–150 T 0.55 1 Bronze powder T 0.76–0.80 1 Carbon candle soot T 0.95 2 Carbon charcoal powder T 0.96 1 Carbon graphite, filed surface T 0.98 2 Carbon graphite powder T 0.97 1 Carbon lampblack 20–400 T 0.95–0.97 1 Chipboard untreated 20 SW 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Copper oxidized, heavily 20 T 0.78 2 Copper oxidized to blackness T 0.88 1 Copper polished 50–100 T 0.02 1 Copper polished 100 T 0.03 2 Copper polished, commercial 27 T 0.03 4 Copper polished, mechanical 22 T 0.015 4 Copper pure, carefully prepared surface 22 T 0.008 4 Copper scraped 27 T 0.07 4 Copper dioxide powder T 0.84 1 Copper oxide red, powder T 0.70 1 T 0.89 1 80 T 0.85 1 20 T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Granite rough, 4 different samples 70 SW 0.95–0.97 9 20 T 0.8–0.9 1 Gypsum Ice: See Water Iron, cast casting 50 T 0.81 1 Iron, cast ingots 1000 T 0.95 1 Iron, cast liquid 1300 T 0.28 1 Iron, cast machined 800–1000 T 0.60–0.70 1 Iron, cast oxidized 38 T 0.63 4 Iron, cast oxidized 100 T 0.64 2 Iron, cast oxidized 260 T 0.66 4 Iron, cast oxidized 538 T 0.76 4 Iron, cast oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.64–0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1 Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1 Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 1 Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 4 Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 T 0.78–0.82 1 Iron and steel oxidized 200 T 0.79 2 Iron and steel oxidized 1227 T 0.89 4 Iron and steel oxidized 200–600 T 0.80 1 Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1 Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0.064 4 Krylon Ultra-flat black 1602 Flat black Room temperature up to 175 LW Ca. 0.96 12 Krylon Ultra-flat black 1602 Flat black Room temperature up to 175 MW Ca. 0.97 12 Lacquer 3 colors sprayed on Aluminum 70 LW 0.92–0.94 9 Lacquer 3 colors sprayed on Aluminum 70 SW 0.50–0.53 9 Lacquer Aluminum on rough surface 20 T 0.4 1 Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0.83 1 Lacquer black, dull 40–100 T 0.96–0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 Magnesium Magnesium polished 3 4 5 6 538 T 0.18 4 20 T 0.07 2 T 0.86 1 Magnesium powder Molybdenum 600–1000 T 0.08–0.13 1 Molybdenum 1500–2200 T 0.19–0.26 1 700–2500 T 0.1–0.3 1 17 SW 0.87 5 Molybdenum filament Mortar Mortar dry 36 SW 0.94 7 Nextel Velvet 81121 Black Flat black –60–150 LW > 0.97 10 and 11 Nichrome rolled 700 T 0.25 1 Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1 Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nickel electroplated on iron, unpolished 22 T 0.11 4 Nickel oxidized 200 T 0.37 2 Nickel oxidized 227 T 0.37 4 Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0.85 4 Nickel oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.37–0.48 1 Nickel polished 122 T 0.045 4 Nickel wire 200–1000 T 0.1–0.2 1 Nickel oxide 500–650 T 0.52–0.59 1 Nickel oxide 1000–1250 T 0.75–0.86 1 Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film 20 T 0.27 2 Oil, lubricating 0.050 mm film 20 T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Paint oil based, average of 16 colors 100 T 0.94 2 Paint plastic, black 20 SW 0.95 6 Paint plastic, white 20 SW 0.84 6 Paper 4 different colors 70 LW 0.92–0.94 9 Paper 4 different colors 70 SW 0.68–0.74 9 Paper black T 0.90 1 Paper black, dull T 0.94 1 Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9 Paper black, dull 70 SW 0.86 9 Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1 Paper coated with black lacquer T 0.93 1 Paper green T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Plastic polyurethane isolation board 70 LW 0.55 9 Plastic polyurethane isolation board 70 SW 0.29 9 Plastic PVC, plastic floor, dull, structured 70 LW 0.93 9 Plastic PVC, plastic floor, dull, structured 70 SW 0.94 9 Platinum 17 T 0.016 4 Platinum 22 T 0.03 4 Platinum 100 T 0.05 4 Platinum 260 T 0.06 4 Platinum 538 T 0.10 4 Platinum 1000–1500 T 0.14–0.18 1 Platinum 1094 T 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Skin human 32 T 0.98 2 Slag boiler 0–100 T 0.97–0.93 1 Slag boiler 200–500 T 0.89–0.78 1 Slag boiler 600–1200 T 0.76–0.70 1 Slag boiler 1400–1800 T 0.69–0.67 1 Soil dry 20 T 0.92 2 Soil saturated with water 20 T 0.95 2 Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18% Cr 500 T 0.35 1 Stainless steel rolled 700 T 0.45 1 Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1 Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 LW 0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 200 T 0.40 1 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 500 T 0.50 1 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 1000 T 0.60 1 Titanium polished 200 T 0.15 1 Titanium polished 500 T 0.20 1 Titanium polished 1000 T 0.36 1 Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1 Tungsten 600–1000 T 0.1–0.16 1 Tungsten 1500–2200 T 0.24–0.31 1 Tungsten filament 3300 T 0.39 1 Varnish flat 20 SW 0.93 6 Varnish on oak parquet floor 70 LW 0.90–0.
36 – Emissivity tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wood pine, 4 different samples 70 LW 0.81–0.89 9 Wood pine, 4 different samples 70 SW 0.67–0.75 9 Wood planed 20 T 0.8–0.9 1 Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2 Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9 Wood planed oak 70 SW 0.77 9 Wood plywood, smooth, dry 36 SW 0.82 7 Wood plywood, untreated 20 SW 0.83 6 Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7–0.8 1 Zinc oxidized at 400°C 400 T 0.11 1 Zinc oxidized surface 1000–1200 T 0.50–0.
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